Since the 1950s, the science and technology communities have been striving to achieve controlled and economically viable fusion. Fusion is an appealing energy source for many reasons, but after billions of dollars and decades of research, to most, the idea of a sustainable fusion source for clean energy has become a pipe dream. The challenge has been to find a way to sustain a fusion reaction in a way that is economical, safe, reliable, and environmentally sound. This challenge has proved to be extraordinarily difficult. The commonly held belief in the art is that another 25-50 years of research remain before fusion is a viable option for power generation—“As the old joke has it, fusion is the power of the future—and always will be” (“Next ITERation?”, Sep. 3, 2011, The Economist).
Prior efforts in large-scale fusion research have primarily focused on two methods of creating conditions for fusion ignition: inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and magnetic confinement fusion. ICF attempts to initiate a fusion reaction by compressing and heating fusion reactants such as a mixture of deuterium and tritium in the form of a small pellet about the size of a pinhead. The fuel is energized by delivering high-energy beams of laser light, electrons, or ions to the fuel target, causing the heated outer layer of the target fuel to explode and produce shockwaves that travel inward through the fuel pellet compressing and heating the fusion reactants, thereby initiating a fusion reaction.
At the time of this filing, the most successful ICF program is the National Ignition Facility (NIF) which was constructed at the cost of nearly 3.5 billion dollars and completed in 2009. NIF reached a milestone by causing a fuel pellet to give off more energy than was applied to it, but as of 2015, the NIF experiments were only able to reach about ⅓ of the energy levels needed for ignition. Regarding a sustainable reaction, the longest reported ICF fusion reaction was on the order of 150 picoseconds. Even if ICF efforts achieve ignition conditions, there are still many obstacles to making it a viable energy source. For example, solutions are needed to remove heat from the reaction chamber without interfering with the fuel targets and driver beams, and solutions are needed to mitigate the short lifetime of fusion plants due to the radioactive byproducts of the fusion reactants: deuterium and tritium reactions produce neutrons.
The second major research direction, magnetic confinement fusion, attempts to induce fusion by using magnetic fields to confine hot fusion fuel in the form of a plasma. This method seeks to lengthen the time that ions spend close together and increase the likelihood that they fuse. Magnetic fusion devices apply a magnetic force on charged particles in a manner that, when balanced with centripetal force, causes the particles to move in circular or helical path within the plasma. The magnetic confinement prevents the hot plasma from contacting the walls of its reactor. In magnetic confinement, fusion occurs entirely within the plasma.
Most of the research in magnetic confinement is based on the tokamak design in which hot plasma is confined within a toroidal magnetic field. The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) at Princeton, N.J. is world's first magnetic fusion device to perform extensive scientific experiments with plasmas composed of 50/50 deuterium/tritium. Built in 1980, it was hoped that TFTR would finally achieve fusion energy, but it never achieved this goal and was shut down in 1997. To date, the longest plasma duration time of any tokamak is 6 minutes and 30 seconds, held by the Tore Supra tokamak in France. Current efforts in magnetically confined fusion are focused on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a Tokamak reactor that began construction in 2013. As of June 2015, the building costs have exceeded $14 billion, and construction of the facility is not expected until 2019 with full deuterium-tritium experiments starting in 2027. The current estimate for the cost of the project is over $50 billion, and it is likely the costs will continue to rise. Recently, the Energy and Water Development Subcommittee of the Senate Appropriations Committee released a recommendation that the U.S. withdraw from the ITER project. Due to market realities, and the inherent limitations of the tokamak design for fusion power, many analysts doubt that fusion reactors such as ITER will become commercially viable.
An alternative form of magnetic confinement is being studied by the Maryland Centrifugal Experiment (MCX), at the University of Maryland. It will test the concepts of centrifugal confinement and velocity shear stabilization. In this experiment, capacitors are discharged from a cylindrical cathode through hydrogen gas to a surrounding vacuum chamber in the presence of a magnetic field. The orthogonal electric and magnetic fields (represented as J×B) produce a force that drives hot ionized plasma (>105K) into rotation around the discharge electrodes. Due to the significant change in temperatures at the plasma boundary, there inevitably exists cold neutral species that significantly affect plasma flows. Studies have focused on the effect of neutrals and as they have thought to “impede the required plasma rotation” needed for fusion conditions. “Neutral species” or simply “neutrals” are atoms or molecules with a neutral charge, i.e., they have the same number of electrons and protons, the atomic number in the case of an atom. An ion or ionized atom or other particle has a charge, i.e., it has at least one more electron than proton or at least one more proton than electron.
Rotating plasma devices that do not employ highly ionized plasmas have been considered for fusion research, but the neutrals have always been seen as a problem for reaching fusion conditions. Due to limiting effects including neutral drag and instabilities, one researcher in the field considered that while “not quite impossible [it is] still unlikely that rotating plasmas alone would lead to the realization of a self-sustained fusion reactor.” (Review Paper: ROTATING PLASMAS”, Lehnart, Nuclear Fusion 11 (1971)).
All credible prior approaches have all faced confinement and engineering issues. A gross energy balance for a fusion reactor, Q, is defined as:Q=Efusion/Ein,
where Efusion is the total energy released by fusion reactions, and Ein is the energy used to create the reactions. The goal is to exceed a Q of one or “unity” toward the end of creating a viable energy source. Officials of the Joint European Torus (JET) claim to have achieved Q≈0.7 and the US National Ignition Facility recently claims to have achieved a Q>1 (ignoring the very substantial energy losses of its lasers). The condition of Q=1, referred to as “breakeven,” indicates that the amount of energy released by fusion reactions is equal to the amount of energy input. In practice, a reactor used to produce electricity should exhibit a Q value significantly greater than 1 to be commercially viable, since only a portion of the fusion energy can be converted to a useful form. Conventional thinking holds that only strongly ionized plasmas that do not have significant quantities of neutrals present have the potential of achieving Q>1. These conditions limit the particle densities and energy confinement times that can be achieved in a fusion reactor. Thus, the field has looked to the Lawson criterion as the benchmark for controlled fusion reactions—a benchmark, it is believed, that no one has yet achieved when accounting for all energy inputs. The art's pursuit of the Lawson criterion, or substantially similar paradigms, has led to fusion devices and systems that are large, complex, difficult to manage, expensive, and, as yet, economically unviable. A common formulation of the Lawson criterion, known as the triple product, is as follows:
      nT    ⁢                  ⁢          τ      E        >                    12        ⁢                                  ⁢                  k          B                            E        ch              ⁢                  T        2                    〈        συ        〉            
While the Lawson criterion will not be discussed in detail here; in essence, the criterion states that the product of the particle density (n), temperature (T), and confinement time (τE) must be greater than a number dependent on the energy of the charged fusion products (Ech), the Boltzmann constant (kB), the fusion cross section (σ), the relative velocity (ν), and temperature in order for ignition conditions to be reached. For the deuterium-tritium reaction, the minimum of the triple product occurs at T=14 keV and the number for the triple product is about 3×1021 keV s/m3 (J. Wesson, “Tokamaks”, Oxford Engineering Science Series No 48, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1997.) In practice, this industry-standard paradigm suggests that temperatures in excess of 150,000,000 degrees Centigrade are required to achieve positive energy balance using a D-T fusion reaction. For proton-boron 11 fusion, the Lawson criterion suggests that the required temperature must be yet substantially higher. More specifically, nτ˜1016 s/cm3, which is ˜100× greater than required for D-T fusion [from Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications by George H. Miley and S. Krupaker Murali].
An aspect of the Lawson criterion is based on the premise that thermal energy must be continually added to the plasma to replace lost energy, maintain the plasma temperature, and keep it fully or highly ionized. In particular, a major source of energy loss in conventional fusion systems is radiation due to electron bremsstrahlung and cyclotron motion as mobile electrons interact with ions in the hot plasma. The Lawson criterion was formulated for fusion methods where electron radiation loss is a significant consideration due to the use of hot, heavily ionized plasmas with highly mobile electrons.
Because the conventional thinking holds that high temperatures and a strongly-ionized plasma, absent of the presence of a significant presence of neutrals, are required, it was further believed that inexpensive physical containment of the reaction was impossible. Accordingly, the methods that have been most heavily pursued are directed to complex and expensive schemes to contain the reaction, such as those used in magnetic confinement systems (e.g., the ITER tokamak) and in inertial confinement systems (e.g., NIF laser).
In fact, at least one source acknowledges the believed impossibility of containing a fusion reaction with a physical structure: “The simplest and most obvious method with which to provide confinement of a plasma is by a direct-contact with material walls, but is impossible for two fundamental reasons: the wall would cool the plasma and most wall materials would melt. We recall that the fusion plasma here requires a temperature of ˜108K while metals generally melt at a temperature below 5000 K.” (“Principles of Fusion Energy,” A. A. Harms et al.). The need for extremely high temperatures is premised on the belief that only highly energized ions with charge can fuse, and that the coulombic repulsion force limits the fusion events. The present teaching in the field relies on this basic assumption for the vast majority of all research and projects.
In rare instances, researchers have considered methods for reducing the Coulombic barrier or repulsion force, which repels interacting positive nuclei, in order to reduce the required energy to initiate and maintain fusion. Such methods have largely been disregarded as infeasible with the methods described above.
In the 1950's the concept of muon-catalyzed fusion was studied by Luis Alvarez using a hydrogen bubble chamber at the University of California at Berkeley. Alverez's work (“Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons.” Physical Review. 105, Alvarez, L. W.; et al. (1957)) demonstrated nuclear fusion taking place at temperatures significantly lower than the temperatures required for thermonuclear fusion. In theory, it was proposed that fusion could occur even at or below room temperature. In this process, a negatively charged muon replaces one of the electrons in a hydrogen molecule. Since the mass of a muon is 207 greater than an electron, the hydrogen nuclei are consequently drawn 207 times closer together than in a normal molecule. When the nuclei are this close together, the probability of nuclear fusion is greatly increased, to the point where a significant number of fusion events can happen at room temperature.
While muon-catalyzed fusion received some attention, efforts to make a muon-catalyzed fusion source have not been successful. Current techniques for creating large numbers of muons require significant amounts of energy that exceed the energy produced by the catalyzed nuclear fusion reactions, thus precluding breakeven or Q>1. Moreover, each muon has about a 1% chance of “sticking” to the alpha particle produced by the nuclear fusion of a deuteron (the nucleus of deuterium atom) with a triton (the nucleus of tritium atom), removing the “stuck” muon from the catalytic cycle. This means that each muon can only catalyze at most a few hundred deuterium-tritium nuclear fusion reactions. Thus, these two factors—muons being too expensive to make and then sticking too easily to alpha particles—-limit muon-catalyzed fusion to a laboratory curiosity. To create useful muon-catalyzed fusion, reactors would need a cheaper, more efficient muon source and/or a way for each muon to catalyze many more fusion reactions. To date, none have been found or even theorized.
In March of 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons submitted a paper to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry reporting that they had discovered a method of reducing the Coulombic barrier by a method that is now commonly referred to as “cold fusion.” Fleishmann and Pons believed they had observed nuclear reaction byproducts and a significant amount of heat generated by a small tabletop experiment involving electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of palladium electrodes. One explanation for cold fusion considered that hydrogen and its isotopes could be absorbed in certain solids, such as palladium, at high densities. The absorption of hydrogen creates a high partial pressure, reducing the average separation of hydrogen isotopes and thus lowering the potential barrier. Another explanation was that electron screening of the positive hydrogen nuclei in the palladium lattice was sufficient for lowering the barrier.
While the Fleischmann-Pons findings initially received significant press, the reception by the scientific community was largely critical as a group at Georgia Tech University quickly found problems with their neutron detector, and Texas A&M University discovered bad wiring in their thermometers. These experimental mistakes, along with many failed attempts to replicate the Fleischmann-Pons experiment by well-known laboratories, lead most in the scientific community to conclude that any positive experimental results should not be attributed to “fusion.” Due in part to the publicity received, the United States Department of Energy (DOE) organized a special panel to review cold fusion theory and research. First in November of 1989, and again 2004, the DOE concluded that results thus far did not present convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from the phenomena attributed to “cold fusion.”
Another attempt to reduce the Coulombic barrier employs electron screening in a solid matrix. Electron screening has first been observed in stellar plasmas where it was determined to change the fusion rate by five orders of magnitude if the screening factor changes by only a few percent (Wilets, L., et al. “Effect of screening on thermonuclear fusion in stellar and laboratory plasmas.” The Astrophysical Journal 530.1 (2000): 504.). According to Wilets, “[t]he rate of thermonuclear fusion in plasmas is governed by barrier penetration. The barrier itself is dominated by the Coulomb repulsion of the fusing nuclei. Because the barrier potential appears in the exponent of the Gamow formula, the result is very sensitive to the effects of screening by electrons and positive ions in the plasma. Screening lowers the barrier and thus enhances the fusion rate; the greater the nuclear charges, the more important it becomes.”
One example that tries to make use of this electron screening effect to create ignition conditions is presented in US Patent Publication No. US2005/0129160A1 by Robert Indech. In this application, Indech describes the electron shielding of the positively-charged repulsive forces between two deuterons located near the tip of a microscopic cone structure when electrons concentrate at the top of the cone structure due to an applied potential. As disclosed, these cones were arrayed on a surface measuring 3 cm by 3 cm.
While Indech and others have realized the potential electron screening to lower the Coulombic barrier for fusion reactors, it is doubtful any efforts have been successful. At most these efforts appear to propose methods for ignition and not a sustained and controlled fusion reaction. Despite efforts in ICF, magnetic confinement fusion, and various methods of reducing the Coulombic barrier, there is currently no commercially feasible fusion reactor design that exists.